Here's a pretty tale. During the mid 19th C vampire craze, Leo Tolstoy wrote a vampire story in 1841, which was poorly received. His cousin Alexei wrote one too: 'The Family of the Vourdalak', that being a Slavic word for vampire. The Family of the Vourdalak by Fedor Nikanov (1969) have been retained. This thesis concerns vampires -the bloodthirsty revenants of the folk tales that by the end of the nineteenth century became one of the most appealing literary metaphors reflecting the.

Includes bibliographical referencesThey opened the graves / by Jean-Baptiste de Boyer, Marquis d'Argens - Dead persons in Hungary / by Antoine Augustin Calmet - End of my journey / by George Gordon, Lord Byron - Vampyre / by John Polidori - Wake not the dead / attributed to Johann Ludwig Tieck - Deathly lover / by Theophile Gautier - Family of the Vourdalak / by Aleksei Tolstoy - Varney the vampyre / by James Malcolm Rymer - What was it? / by Fitz-James O'Brien - Mysterious stranger / by Anonymous - A mystery of the Campagna / by Anne Crawford - Death and burial- vampires and were-wolves / by Emily Gerard - Let loose / by Mary Cholmondeley - A true story of a vampire / by Eric, Count Stenbock - Good Lady Ducayne / by Mary Elizabeth Braddon - And the creature came in / by Augustus Hare - Tomb of Sarah / by F.G. Loring - Vampire maid / by Hume Nisbet - Luella Miller / by Mary E.Wilkins Freeman - Count Magnus / by M.R. James - Aylmer Vance and the vampire / by Alice and Claude Askew - Fruit / by Bram Stoker. Access-restricted-item true Addeddate 2011-10-26 14:08:32 Boxid IA173301 Boxid2 CH126307 Camera Canon EOS 5D Mark II City New York Donor Edition 1st U.S.

Woodcut of a werewolf attack, by, 1512GroupingSub groupingSimilar creatures,CountryRegion,A werewolf, also known as a lycanthrope (from the Greek λυκάνθρωπος: λύκος, lykos, 'wolf', and ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, 'man'), is a or human with the ability to into a or a wolf-like creature, either purposely or after being placed under a or affliction (e.g. Via a bite or scratch from another werewolf). Early sources for belief in lycanthropy are and.The werewolf is a widespread concept in, existing in many variants which are related by a common development of a of underlying European folklore which developed during the. From the early modern period, werewolf beliefs also spread to the with.

Belief in werewolf develops parallel to the belief in, in the course of the and the. Like the witchcraft trials as a whole, the trial of supposed werewolves emerges in what is now (especially the and ) in the early 15th century and spreads throughout Europe in the 16th, peaking in the 17th and subsiding by the 18th century. The persecution of werewolves and the associated folklore is an integral part of the 'witch-hunt' phenomenon, albeit a marginal one, accusations of werewolfery being involved in only a small fraction of witchcraft trials.

1 During the early period, accusations of lycanthropy (transformation into a wolf) were mixed with accusations of wolf-riding or wolf-charming. The case of (1589) led to a significant peak in both interest in and, primarily in French-speaking and German-speaking Europe. The phenomenon persisted longest in Bavaria and Austria, with persecution of recorded until well after 1650, the final cases taking place in the early 18th century in.

2After the end of the witch-trials, the werewolf became of interest in and in the emerging genre; as a genre has pre-modern precedents in medieval (e.g. And ) and develops in the 18th century out of the 'semi-fictional' tradition. The trappings of horror literature in the 20th century became part of the horror and fantasy genre of modern. Depiction of a warrior wearing a wolf-skin ( )The werewolf folkore found in Europe harks back to a common development during the, arising in the context of, and the associated interpretation of pre-Christian mythology in Christian terms. Their underlying common origin can be traced back to, where lycanthropy is reconstructed as an aspect of the initiation of the warrior class. This is reflected in Iron Age Europe in the depictions from the Germanic sphere, among others.

The standard comparative overview of this aspect of Indo-European mythology is McCone (1987) 9 Such transformations of 'men into wolves' in pagan cult was associated with the devil from the early medieval perspective.The concept of the werewolf in Western and Northern Europe is strongly influenced by the role of the wolf in (e.g. The French loup-garou is ultimately a loan from the Germanic term), but there are related traditions in other parts of Europe which were not necessarily influenced by Germanic tradition, especially in and the, and possibly in areas bordering the Indo-European sphere (the Caucasus) or where Indo-European cultures have been replaced by military conquest in the medieval era (Hungary, Anatolia).In his (1948), tried to cast the Indo-European tribal namesmeaning 'wolf' or 'wolf-men' in terms of 'the European transition from fruit gathering to predatory hunting.' 10 Classical antiquity. Turning into a, engraving by.A few references to men changing into wolves are found in and., in his, 11 wrote that the, a tribe he places to the north-east of, were all transformed into wolves once every year for several days, and then changed back to their human shape. In the second century BC, the Greek geographer relates the story of, who was transformed into a wolf because he had ritually murdered a child.

In accounts by the (3.8.1) and ( I.219-239), Lycaon serves human flesh to, wanting to know if he is really a god. Lycaon's transformation, therefore, is punishment for a crime, considered variously as murder, cannibalism, and impiety. Ovid also relates stories of men who roamed the woods of in the form of wolves. 12 13In addition to Ovid, other Roman writers also mentioned lycanthropy. Wrote of human beings transforming into wolves. 14 relates two tales of lycanthropy. Quoting Euanthes, 15 16 he mentions a man who hung his clothes on an and swam across an lake, transforming him into a wolf.

On the condition that he attack no human being for nine years, he would be free to swim back across the lake to resume human form. Pliny also quotes regarding a tale of a man who was turned into a wolf after tasting the entrails of a human child, but was restored to human form 10 years later.In the work of, the, written about 60 C.E. By, one of the characters, Niceros, tells a story at a banquet about a friend who turned into a wolf (chs. He describes the incident as follows, 'When I look for my buddy I see he'd stripped and piled his clothes by the roadside. He pees in a circle round his clothes and then, just like that, turns into a wolf!

After he turned into a wolf he started howling and then ran off into the woods.' 17 Middle Ages. In Asian Cultures, the 'were' equivalent is a weretiger or wereleopard.

These beliefs stemmed from fears that these were supernatural.Common holds a different, reverential light to the werewolf legends in that Turkic Central Asian after performing long and arduous rites would voluntarily be able to transform into the humanoid 'Kurtadam' (literally meaning Wolfman). Since the wolf was the totemic ancestor animal of the Turkic peoples, they would be respectful of any shaman who was in such a form.Lycanthropy as a medical conditionSome modern researchers have tried to explain the reports of werewolf behaviour with recognised medical conditions. Dr Lee Illis of in London wrote a paper in 1963 entitled On Porphyria and the Aetiology of Werewolves, in which he argues that historical accounts on werewolves could have in fact been referring to victims of congenital, stating how the symptoms of, reddish teeth and could have been grounds for accusing a sufferer of being a werewolf. 27 This is however argued against by Woodward, who points out how mythological werewolves were almost invariably portrayed as resembling true wolves, and that their human forms were rarely physically conspicuous as porphyria victims. 19 Others have pointed out the possibility of historical werewolves having been sufferers of, a hereditary condition manifesting itself in excessive hair growth. However, Woodward dismissed the possibility, as the rarity of the disease ruled it out from happening on a large scale, as werewolf cases were in medieval Europe.

19 People suffering from have been suggested by some scholars to have been possible originators of werewolf myths. 28 Woodward suggested as the origin of werewolf beliefs, claiming remarkable similarities between the symptoms of that disease and some of the legends. Woodward focused on the idea that being bitten by a werewolf could result in the victim turning into one, which suggested the idea of a transmittable disease like rabies. 19 However, the idea that lycanthropy could be transmitted in this way is not part of the original myths and legends and only appears in relatively recent beliefs.Folk beliefs. The beliefs classed together under lycanthropy are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously applied.

Various methods for becoming a werewolf have been reported, one of the simplest being the removal of clothing and putting on a belt made of wolfskin, probably as a substitute for the assumption of an entire animal skin (which also is frequently described). 30 In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic. 30 Drinking rainwater out of the footprint of the animal in question or from certain enchanted streams were also considered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis. 31 The 16th century Swedish writer says that the werewolves were initiated by draining a cup of specially prepared beer and repeating a set formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation still familiar in Russia. In Italy, France and Germany, it was said that a man or woman could turn into a werewolf if he or she, on a certain Wednesday or Friday, slept outside on a summer night with the full moon shining directly on his or her face. 19In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished by allegiance for the most loathsome ends, often for the sake of sating a craving for human flesh.

'The werewolves', writes ( Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, 1628),are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they make by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not only unto the view of others seem as wolves, but to their own thinking have both the shape and nature of wolves, so long as they wear the said girdle. And they do dispose themselves as very wolves, in worrying and killing, and most of humane creatures.The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal, or of sending out a, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are also attributed to the, male and female, all the world over; and superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connection with the bush-soul of the West African and the of; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate association of the bush-soul or the nagual with a human being are not termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these beliefs here.The curse of lycanthropy was also considered by some scholars as being a divine punishment.

Werewolf literature shows many examples of or saints allegedly cursing those who invoked their wrath with werewolfism. Such is the case of, who was turned into a wolf by as punishment for slaughtering one of his own sons and serving his remains to the gods as a dinner. Those who were by the were also said to become werewolves.

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19The power of transforming others into wild beasts was attributed not only to malignant sorcerers, but to as well. Omnes angeli, boni et Mali, ex virtute naturali habent potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra ('All angels, good and have the power of transmutating our bodies') was the dictum of. Was said to have transformed the king into a wolf; supposedly cursed an illustrious Irish family whose members were each doomed to be a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine agency is even more direct, while in Russia, again, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil.A notable exception to the association of Lycanthropy and the Devil, comes from a rare and lesser known account of an 80-year-old man named. In 1692, in, Thiess testified under oath that he and other werewolves were the Hounds of God. 32 He claimed they were warriors who went down into hell to do battle with witches and demons.

Their efforts ensured that the Devil and his minions did not carry off the grain from local failed crops down to hell. Thiess was steadfast in his assertions, claiming that werewolves in Germany and Russia also did battle with the devil's minions in their own versions of hell, and insisted that when werewolves died, their souls were welcomed into heaven as reward for their service. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to ten lashes for Idolatry and.Remedies. This article was sourced from Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. World Heritage Encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers, Open Access Publishing, and in compliance with The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR), Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Public Library of Science, The Encyclopedia of Life, Open Book Publishers (OBP), PubMed, U.S.

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